Reproduction

Eggs are normally inserted into preexisting cavities in the soil by the females (Swan and Papp 1972).  As the embryonic larva develops and nears the time of hatching, the egg swells making the larval eyes and mandibles visible through the chorion (outer membrane enclosing the embryo).  This stage in the egg is usually brief (5-10 days).  The larva are eruciform (caterpillar-shaped) with largely membraneous skin, cone-shaped legs, and a sclerotized (hardened) head.  The duration of the larval life depends on the species, availability of food, temperature, and the season.  If conditions are favorable, it may take about one month to get to the final larval stage.  In this stage, feeding and growth continues for many days.  Then the larval will prepare a cavity in the soil, stop feeding, and become quiescent, starting the inactivity period.  This period lasts about five weeks if it is in the summer and about seven weeks if it is in the winter.  The last stage before adulthood is the pupal stage.  In this stage, you start to see moveable mandibles and appendages free from the body.  This stage lasts 10-21 days (Resh and Cardel 2003).